Wayzata World Factbook 1994/World Factbook - 1994 Edition - Wayzata Technology (1994).iso/pc/text/txtfiles/mongolia.bkg

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#CARD:Mongolia:Background Notes
BACKGROUND NOTES:  MONGOLIA
PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE
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October 1993
Official Name:  Mongolia
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PROFILE
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Geography
Area:  1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska
(land boundaries 8,114 km.).  Cities:  Capital--Ulaanbaatar (pop.
575,000).  Other cities--Darhan (90,000), Erdenet (58,000).  Terrain:
Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert wasteland, of varying
usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.  Climate:  Continental, with little
precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.
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People
Nationality:  Noun and adjective--Mongolian(s).  Population (1992):
2.3 million.  Annual growth rate (1992):  2.6%.  Health:  Infant
mortality rate (1992)--47/1,000.  Life expectancy (1992)--63-68 yrs.
Ethnic groups (1989):  85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7%
Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others,
including Chinese and Russian.  Languages:  Khalkha Mongol, more
than 90%; minor languages include Kazakh, Chinese, and Russian.
Religions:  Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in
the southwest), and Shamanism.  Education:  Years compulsory--8
(provided free by the government).  The traditional Mongolian script has
been revived, and there are plans to officially replace Cyrillic by 1994.
Literacy--more than 90%.
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Government
Type:  Parliamentary form of government, president second in authority
to the State Great Hural.  Independence:  1921; democratic reform and
shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared 1990.
Constitutions:  1960 and February 12, 1992.
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Branches:  Executive--power divided between a president (elected by a
popular election in June 1993) and prime minister (cabinet nominated by
the new prime minister was formed in Aug. 1992 by the State Great
Hural which was elected in June 1992).  Legislative--State Great Hural
(76 deputies).  Judicial--Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise
the implementation of the Constitution, makes judgment on the violation
of its provisions, and solves disputes.  Legal code under revision.  No
provision for judicial review of legislative acts.  Legal education at
Mongolian State Univ.  Recently, Mongolia began accepting ICJ
jurisdiction.
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Political parties:  11 announced political parties (see box pg. 5).
Suffrage:  Universal at 18.
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Administrative subdivisions:  18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous
cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).
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Flag:  Three vertical bands--red, sky-blue, red; on the left red band the
Mongolian national emblem, in yellow.
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Economy
GDP:  $2.2 billion (1992).  Per capita GDP: $998 (1992).
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Natural resources:  Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin,
nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, petroleum.
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Agriculture:  22% of 1992 GDP, livelihood for approximately 50% of
population (1992).  Products--livestock, wheat, oats, barley, hay
fodder, vegetables.
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Industry:  34% of 1992 GDP; minerals (primarily copper), animal-
derived products, building materials, food/beverage, mining (esp. coal);
industrial growth rate in 1991 fell 12%.
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Trade:  Exports (1992, $400 million)--livestock, animal products, wool,
hides, fluorspar, nonferrous metals, minerals.  Imports (1992, $368
million)--machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial
consumer goods, tea, chemicals, building equipment, sugar.  Partners
(1992)--Russia and other NIS states, 55%; China, 14%; Japan, 7.6%;
Germany, 4%; Switzerland, 3%; U.S., 0.7% ($13 million, 1991).
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Aid received:  Donors promised $325 million in aid, loans, and
assistance at 1992 Tokyo Donor's Conference (millions):  Japan, $68;
U.S., $35; Republic of Korea, $15; Germany, $9; U.K., $5; European
Community, $5.
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Official exchange rate (July 1993):  399 tugriks=U.S.$1.

Fiscal year:  Calendar year.    (###)
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PEOPLE
Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has become more urbanized.
Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other
provincial centers.  Nomadic life still predominates in the countryside,
but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common.
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Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 3.3%.  About three-fourths of the
total population are under age 30, 45% of  whom are under 16.  Forty-
nine percent of all children are pre-school age.  More than 50,000
families have five or more children.
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Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of
Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the
Mongol language*.  Mongol is an Altaic language (from the Altaic
Mountains of Central Asia--a language family comprising the Turkic,
Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies) related to Turkic (Uzbek,
Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese.  The Khalkha
make up 90% of the Mongol population.  The remaining 10% include
Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the
east.  Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7%
of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese,
and Russians.  Many Russians left the country following Mongolia's
declaration of independence.
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*Mongol is an Altaic language (from the Altaic Mountains of Central
Asia--a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic
subfamilies) related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean,
and, possibly, Japanese.
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Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion.
However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990,
with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain.  Since 1990, as
liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence.
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About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live
in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; and some
500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.
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HISTORY
In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic
tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan.  He and his
immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia
and sent armies as far as Central Europe and Southeast Asia.  Genghis
Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established
the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the
writings of Marco Polo.
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Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political
power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly
after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368.
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The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and
formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu
control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles
swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor.  The Mongol rulers
of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus,
and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of
the republic have rested on this oath.  In 1727, Russia and Manchu
China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between
China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.
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Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous
state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province
(1919-21).  As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and
Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support
to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles.  The
Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of
Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against
the Manchus.  By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian
Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept
Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to
discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent
Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources
as possible.
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The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an
opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese
troops were dispatched there in 1919.  Following Soviet military
victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s, Moscow again
became the major outside influence on Mongolia.  The Mongolian
People's Republic (M.P.R.) was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.
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Between 1925 and 1928, M.P.R.  power under the communist regime
was consolidated.  The M.P.R. left gradually undermined rightist
elements, seizing control of the party and the government.  Several
factors characterized the country during this period--the society was
basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the
aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth;
there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the
party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little
organization or experience.
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In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government
applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant
institutions in the country--the aristocracy and the religious
establishment.  Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance,
and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings.
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During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the
Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of
Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism
and build-up of the national defense.  The Soviet-Mongolian army
defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the
summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to
define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.
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Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in
Mongolia.   Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian
Government shifted to post-war development, focusing on civilian
enterprise.  International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established
relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in
Eastern Europe.  It also increased its participation in communist-
sponsored conferences and international organizations.  Mongolia
became a member of the United Nations in 1961.
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In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position
amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation
changed in the middle of the decade.  The M.P.R. and the Soviet Union
signed an agreement in 1966, which introduced large-scale Soviet
ground forces to part of Moscow's general build-up along the Sino-
Soviet frontier.
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During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia
and China also deteriorated.  In 1983, the M.P.R. systematically began
expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China.
Many of them had lived in the M.P.R. since the 1950s, when they were
sent there to assist in construction projects.
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Many factors may have motivated this shift:  a historical Mongolian
antipathy for the Chinese; continued tensions on the Sino-Mongolian
border (despite a 1964 demarcation); statements attributed to Beijing
suggesting a continued interest among some Chinese for re-annexing
Mongolia; Russia's historical counterbalancing of Chinese influence;
and heavy Mongolian dependence on Soviet economic aid.
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Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present
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March 13, 1921:  Provisional People's Government declares
independence of Mongolia.
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May 31, 1924:  U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government,
referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of
China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to
respect.
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May-September 16, 1939:  Large-scale fighting takes place between
Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on M.P.R.-
Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force.
Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.
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October 6, 1949:  Newly established People's Republic of China
accepts recognition accorded M.P.R. and agrees to establish diplomatic
relations.
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October 1961:  Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.
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January 27, 1987:  Diplomatic relations established with the United
States.
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December 1989:  First popular reform demonstrations.  Mongolian
Democratic Association organized.
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March 2, 1990:  Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops
will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.
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May 1990:  Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and
new elections.
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July 29, 1990:  First democratic elections held.
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September 3, 1990:  First democratically elected People's Great Hural
takes office.
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February 12, 1992:  New constitution goes into effect.
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April 8, 1992:  New election law passed.
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June 28, 1992:  Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great
Hural).
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June 6, 1993:  First direct presidential election.
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GOVERNMENT
Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet
system.  Until May 1990, only the communist party--the Mongolian
People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)--officially was permitted to
function.  After some instability during the first two decades of
communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest
until December 1989.  Collectivization of animal husbandry,
introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all
carried out without perceptible popular opposition.
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The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy
movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia.  The first
demonstrations were held in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989; the
development of this democracy movement brought swift and peaceful
changes in Mongolia.  The government adopted a positive approach
toward reform.
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The dramatic shift toward reform actually started in 1990.  At that time,
the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union,
appeared.  In the face of popular demands for faster reform, the
leadership of the MPRP resigned in March 1990.  In May, the
constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the
guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a
standing legislative body (Baga Hural--small Hural), and establishing
the office of president.  Mongolia's first multi-party elections were held
on July 29, 1990.
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A People's Great Hural was elected on July 29, 1990.  The MPRP won
85% of the seats.  It first met on September 3 and elected a president
(MPRP), vice president (SDP--Social Democrats--also chairman of the
Baga Hural), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga
Hural.
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In November 1991, the Great Hural began discussion of a new
constitution,  which entered into force February 12.  In addition to
establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and
guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution
restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral
legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).
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The constitution also provides that the president will be elected by
popular vote rather than by the legislature as before.  In June 1993,
incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential
election running as an opposition candidate.  As the supreme
government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws,
determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements,
and declare a state of emergency.  The SGH meets semi-annually.  SGH
members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms.
SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.  The
first SGH was elected on June 28, 1992.  The MPRP won about 57%
of the popular vote, but won 70 of 76 seats in the SGH.
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The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed
forces, and head of the national security council.  He is popularly
elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms.
The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister,
call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts
of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds
majority),  and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime
minister's signature.  In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the
president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until
inauguration of a newly elected president.
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The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term.  The
prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the
SGH.  The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval.
Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's
resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an
SGH vote for dissolution.
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Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital,
Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet.  On the next lower
administrative level they are elected by provincial subdivisions and
urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and
Erdenet.
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Political Parties
--  Bourgeois Party (Bourgeois)
--  Buddhist Democratic Party
--  Green Party (Greens)
--  Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP)
--  Mongolian Independence Party (Independence)
--  Mongolian People's Party (MPP)
--  Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)
--  Mongolian Worker's Party (MWP)
--  Social Democratic Party (SDP)
--  United Party of Farmers and Herdsmen (Herdsmen)
--  United Party of Private Property Owners (PPOP)
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Principal Government Officials
President--Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat
Prime Minister--Puntsagiyn Jasray
Minister of External Relations--Tserenpiliyn Gombosuren
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Legal System
The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to
select all judges and protect their rights.  The Supreme Court is the
highest judicial body.  Justices are nominated by the GCC and
confirmed by the SGH and president.  The court is constitutionally
empowered to examine all lower court decisions, excluding specialized
court rulings, upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all
laws except the constitution.
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Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels
and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision.  Local authorities--
district and city governors--ensure that these courts abide by presidential
decrees and SGH decisions.  At the apex of the judicial system is the
Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members--including a
chairman--appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely
over the interpretation of the constitution.
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ECONOMY
The rapid political changes of 1990-91 marked the beginning of
Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have
been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing
deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union.  Prior to
1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union and
15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA)
countries.  Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet
Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power
plants.
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The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian
industry.  In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became
increasingly important.  By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of
material products compared to 18% from agriculture.  However,
minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large
proportion of the country's exports.  Principal imports included
machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.
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In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with non-
communist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed.  As of
January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to
conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.
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Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press
ahead with reform.  Privatization of small shops and enterprises is
largely complete, and most prices have been freed.  Privatization of
large state enterprises has begun.  Tax reforms also have begun, and the
barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992.
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Prospects for development away from reliance on nomadic, livestock-
based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's land-locked location
and lack of basic infrastructure.  Mongolia's best hope for accelerated
growth is to attract more foreign investment by further liberalizing the
economy and expanding trade with non-traditional partners.  A new
foreign investment law designed to provide increased incentive to
investors was enacted in mid-1993.
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Foreign aid has been necessary, and, in the past, the former Soviet
Union was the principal source of aid and credit.  Mongolia's estimated
debt to the former Soviet Union in 1992 was more than $10 billion in
transferable rubles.  Considerable technical assistance also came from
the former Soviet Union and East European countries.  Mongolia is
seeking foreign assistance and investment from the West and
international financial institutions to replace former Soviet bloc aid and
to promote development of a market economy.
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Environment
As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the
communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a
major concern.  The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of
factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air.
Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay
production by plowing up more virgin land has increased soil erosion
from wind and rain.  The government responded by founding the
Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1987 and by increasing
publicity on environmental issues.
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FOREIGN RELATIONS
In the wake of the collapse of the international socialist economic system
and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to
pursue an independent and non-aligned foreign policy.  The prime
minister called for co-existence with all nations.  Due to Mongolia's
landlocked position between the newly independent republics and
China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these
countries.
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China
Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s
when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts
expanded.  In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign
ministers.  In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the
first time in 28 years.  In 1991, the Chinese President and Executive
Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission, Yang Shangkun,
visited Mongolia, marking the first visit by a Chinese head of state.
Several agreements were signed during the visit.  Yang praised the
establishment of direct ties between a number of Mongolian ministries,
organizations, local areas and private firms, and their Chinese
counterparts.  The Mongolian premier visited Beijing in May 1992.
That month, the Chinese and Mongolians signed an agreement
establishing new border-crossing points.
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Russia
After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union,  Mongolia
developed relations with the new independent states (NIS).  Links with
Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of
the Mongolian economy.  The primary difficulties in developing fruitful
coordination occurred because the NIS were experiencing the same
political and economic restructuring as Mongolia.  Despite these
difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991
Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement.  The
Prime Minister's visit of March 1992 resulted in an Inter-governmental
Commission on Trade and Cooperation, allowing faster transport of
goods and exempting Mongolian exports from Russian customs duties.
Soviet troop withdrawals from Mongolia began in 1987 and were
completed in September 1992.  In April 1992, the Russian Ambassador
presented his credentials to the Mongolian Prime Minister.  President
Ochirbat's January 1993 trip to Moscow resulted in a new treaty on
friendly relations.
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Asia
Mongolia aims to establish a more balanced non-aligned foreign policy.
It is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea.  Mongolia's
Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990.  Mongolia's President
attended Emperor Akihito's coronation, and Japan's Prime Minister
visited Mongolia in August 1991.  The Mongols expressed great
appreciation for the $67 million in grants and loans that Japan provided
as well as Japan's coordination of international assistance to Mongolia.
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Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and
during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties
were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral
relations.  In April 1992, a Mongolian delegation attended its first forum
of Parliament leaders of countries of Asia and the Pacific in Hawaii.
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Europe
During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection
agreements with Germany and France, and an economic cooperation
agreement with the United Kingdom.  Germany continued former East
German cooperative programs  and also provided loans and aid.
Mongolia seeks closer relations with other countries in Europe and
hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European
Community (EC).  The prime minister traveled to Germany, France,
Belgium, and EC headquarters in Brussels seeking economic
cooperation.
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Mongolians, in pursuing a general policy of expanding relations with as
many countries as possible, have made official visits (high-level
officials and/or parliamentarians) to other countries, including Australia,
Nepal, the Philippines, and Pakistan, and have established diplomatic
relations with a number of nations, even those as far flung as Oman and
Brunei, among others.  Israel accredited an ambassador to Mongolia
from Tokyo.
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U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS
The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987, and
established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988.  It formally
opened in September 1988.  The first U.S. Ambassador to Mongolia,
Richard L. Williams, was not resident there; Joseph E. Lake, the first
resident Ambassador, arrived in July 1990, and will be succeeded by
Donald Johnson.  Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited
Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991.  Mongolia accredited
its first Ambassador to the United States in March 1989.  Prime Minister
Jasray visited the United States and met with Secretary Christopher in
June 1993.
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The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward
democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with
Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields.  The United
States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status, and supported
Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy.  In
1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular
convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)
agreement were signed.  A trade agreement also has been signed.
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In 1991, the U.S. Agency for International Development initiated a
program of technical assistance and training in Mongolia.  The United
States also provided about 25,000 tons of wheat and flour in 1992 to
help alleviate a severe food shortage.  For FY 1993, the United States
has provided Mongolia with $10.3 million in infrastructure and
developmental assistance and $17 million in food and commodity
assistance, including 25,000 metric tons of wheat.
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With strong support from the United States, Mongolia joined the
International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Asian
Development Bank in early 1991.  All three institutions are providing
technical, financial, and project aid.  The United States worked closely
with Japan and the international organizations to organize four donor
group meetings during 1991-93, which succeeded in raising and
coordinating substantial financial and development assistance for
Mongolia.  (###)
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Department of State Publication 7955
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the publication as the source is appreciated.  Permission to reproduce
any copyrighted material (including photos and graphics) must be
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